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4.3.1. Along the way we will see how the Newtonian paradigm
is used to help in the discovery of atoms and their properties, their composition,
and their nature.
4.3.2. leads to modern atomic theory
4.3.3. provides connection between chemistry and Newtonian paradigm
4.3.4. explains chemical, physical, and thermal properties of
matter
4.3.5. unites all of physical science under one paradigm
5.1.1. usually know it when we see it
5.1.2. look at some examples
5.1.2.1. air
5.1.2.2. clouds
5.1.2.3. iron
5.1.2.4. water
5.1.2.5. thoughts
5.1.2.6. ideas
5.1.2.7. emotions
6.1.1. it has "substance"
6.1.2. substantial
7.2.1. most elemental substances do not occur naturally
7.2.1.1. mixtures (atmosphere, sea water)
7.2.1.2. compounds (chemical combinations)
7.2.2. a few elements occur uncombined
7.2.2.1. sulfur
7.2.2.2. carbon
7.2.2.3. metals:gold, silver, platinum, copper
7.2.2.4. oxygen and nitrogen are uncombined but well mixed
7.3.1. rejected atoms, kept elements
7.3.1.1. different concept of element
7.4.1. from Aristotle's four elements through mystical alchemy
7.5.1. nine in 1500
7.5.2. about 50 in mid 1800s
7.5.3. 80 - 85 a hundred years ago
7.5.4. a hundred or so known today
8.1.1. aggregates
8.1.2. mixtures which can be physically separated
8.1.3. individual constituents can be seen
8.1.4. examples: beach sand, concrete, chocolate chip cookie
8.2.1. Homogeneous Mixture (solution)
8.2.1.1. mixture can be separated by physical means
8.2.1.2. individual constituents cannot be identified
8.2.1.3. examples: seawater, perfume
8.2.2. Pure
8.2.2.1. compound
8.2.2.1.1. substance which contains only one kind
of molecule
8.2.2.1.2. example: water, alcohol
8.2.2.2. element
8.2.2.2.1. substance which contains only one kind
of atom
8.2.2.2.1.1. example: oxygen, copper,
carbon
9.1.1. specific relationships between temperature, pressure
and volume
9.1.2. properties helped to decipher the atomic nature of matter
9.1.3. variable shape
9.1.4. variable volume
9.2.1. most solids are crystalline
9.2.1.1. atoms arranged in repeating pattern
9.2.1.2. called crystal lattice
9.2.1.3. crystal shapes not always apparent
9.2.1.4. fixed melting point for a given substance
9.2.2. others are glass or glassy solid
9.2.2.1. irregular groupings of atoms
9.2.2.2. no fixed melting temperature
9.2.2.3. gradually soften over wide temperature range
9.2.2.3.1. glass
9.2.2.3.2. tar
9.2.2.3.3. butter
9.2.2.4. liquid crystals
9.2.2.4.1. normally glassy state
9.2.2.4.2. weak alignments of atoms may be intensified
or disrupted by heat or electricity
9.2.2.4.2.1. examples
9.2.3. fixed shape
9.2.4. fixed volume
9.2.5. crystalline or not
9.3.1. only water is naturally common on earth
9.3.2. most other liquids are man made and water based
9.3.3. unusual state
9.3.3.1. atoms are shifting groups of aligned atoms
9.3.3.2. chaotic, semiorganized state
9.3.4. variable shape
9.3.5. fixed volume
10.1.1. distinguishable with senses
10.1.2. qualitative and quantitative
10.1.3. taste, smell, shape, color, luster are qualitative
10.1.4. density, thermal expansion, conductivity, electrical resistance,
specific heat, boiling and melting temperature, cleavage, crystal form are quantitative
10.1.5. intrinsic properties do not depend upon size, shape
or location
10.2.1. chemical behavior with other substances
10.2.1.1. demo: zinc in copper nitrate (Zn in CuSO4)
10.2.1.2. demo: sodium in water (Na in H2O)
10.2.2. reaction to acids and bases
10.2.2.1. demo: zinc in hydrochloric acid ( Zn + HCl)
10.2.2.1.1. demo: calcium carbonate in hydrochloric
acid (CaCO3 + HCl)
10.2.2.2. demo: sucrose in sulfuric acid (C6H12O6
and H2SO4)
10.2.3. reactions with solutions
10.2.4. combustibility
10.2.4.1. demo: burning magnesium (Mg)
10.2.5. chemical stability
11.1.1. Physical Change
11.1.1.1. generally reversible
11.1.1.2. by thermal processes alone
11.1.1.3. ice <-->water <--> steam
11.1.1.3.1. can melt ice after freezing
11.1.1.4. salt dissolves in water
11.1.1.4.1. can reclaim salt by evaporating water
11.1.2. Chemical Change
11.1.2.1. generally not reversible
11.1.2.2. cannot uncook an egg by refrigeration
11.1.2.3. some may be reversed by chemical means
11.1.2.4. demo: pH indicators
11.1.2.5. extraction of iron from ore is reverse of rusting
11.2.1. chemical changes give off or absorb heat
11.2.2. so do some physical reactions
11.2.2.1. change of state
11.2.2.2. dissolution
11.2.3. solutions become warmer or colder
11.2.4. combustion is a chemical change, solution is a physical
change
11.3.1. chemical changes produce new substances
11.3.1.1. product has very different properties from reactants
11.3.1.2. sodium chloride is neither metal or gas
11.3.1.3. water is not like either hydrogen or oxygen
11.3.1.4. demo: sodium sulfide and cadmium nitrate (NaS
+ Cd(NO3)2
11.3.2. physical change does not involve a change in composition
11.3.2.1. not always easy to tell
11.4.1. physical changes occur in variable ratios
11.4.1.1. alloys or solutions are possible in various proportions
11.4.1.2. silver and gold will alloy in any proportion
11.4.1.3. salt will dissolve in various amounts of water
11.4.1.4. water and alcohol can be mixed in any proportion
11.4.2. chemical changes occur in fixed ratios
11.4.2.1. physical mixtures allow for infinite ratios
11.4.2.1.1. salt dissolves in water
11.4.2.1.2. water and alcohol mix
11.4.2.1.3. metals alloy
11.4.2.2. law of definite proportions is followed
11.4.2.3. chemical compounds have set formulas
11.4.2.4. a certain amount of iron always reacts with a
certain amount of sulfur
11.4.2.5. chemical reactions "leave behind" excess
material in original form
12.1.1. "exo": from, ie. exit
12.1.2. give off energy
12.1.3. combustion, dissolving sodium hydroxide
12.1.4. may require activation energy to initiate (like combustion)
12.1.5. demo: dissolving sodium hydroxide in water (NaOH
+ H2O)
12.2.1. "endo": into
12.2.2. absorb energy
12.2.2.1. demo: dissolving ammonium chloride in water
(NH4Cl + H2O)
12.2.3. used in “cold packs”